Drone Wireless Technologies
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) — from consumer quadcopters to professional survey drones — rely on multiple simultaneous RF links: a control uplink from pilot to drone, a video or data downlink, GNSS for navigation, and telemetry for status reporting. Newer regulations add a mandatory Remote ID broadcast.
Each of these links operates on a distinct frequency band and uses its own modulation and protocol. Antenna performance on every band directly determines the range, reliability and safety of the system. This overview lists the most common drone RF technologies and their operating frequencies.
The operating frequencies given can vary or be restricted depending on the country or region where they are used.
MegiQ products cover all drone frequency bands from 400 MHz to 6 GHz, enabling antenna radiation measurement and verification for every link on the airframe. See also the Wireless Technologies page for the underlying standards such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and LTE that drones build on.
Control / Command Links (Uplink)
The pilot-to-drone control link is safety-critical: loss of signal triggers fail-safe actions such as Return-to-Home. Robust antenna radiation patterns are essential.
| System / Protocol | Frequency MHz | Modulation | Range | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Legacy RC (AM/FM) | 27 / 35 / 40 / 72 | AM / FM | ~1 km | Older hobby systems; largely superseded |
| TBS Crossfire | 868 / 915 | LoRa / FHSS | Up to 150 km | Long-range fixed-wing and FPV; sub-GHz penetration |
| ExpressLRS (ELRS) | 868 / 915 / 2400 | LoRa | Up to 40 km | Open-source; very low latency; rapidly adopted |
| Spektrum DSM2 / DSMX | 2400 – 2483 | DSSS / FHSS | ~2 km | Widespread in hobby RC aircraft |
| FrSky / ACCST / ACCESS | 2400 – 2483 | FHSS | ~2 km | Popular in hobby and FPV communities |
| DJI OcuSync 2 / O3 / O4 | 2400 – 2483 / 5725 – 5850 | OFDM / adaptive | Up to 15 km | Dual-band, auto-switches to clearest channel |
| Cellular (4G LTE / 5G) | 700 – 3800 | OFDM (LTE/NR) | Unlimited (network) | BVLOS operations; uses existing mobile infrastructure |
| FHSS 433 / 915 proprietary | 433 / 868 / 915 | FSK / GFSK | ~5 km | Used in many entry-level and industrial UAVs |
FPV Video & Data Downlinks
Video is typically transmitted from drone to pilot. Antenna placement and gain pattern at these frequencies strongly affect image quality and breakup distance.
| System | Frequency MHz | Modulation | Bandwidth MHz | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Analog FPV (standard) | 5645 – 5945 | FM video | ~18 / ch | 32-channel standard; universal in racing drones |
| Analog FPV (long range) | 1080 – 1360 / 2400 | FM video | ~18 | Better obstacle penetration at lower frequency |
| DJI Digital HD (O3 / O4) | 5725 – 5850 | OFDM | 20 / 40 | Up to 1080p/120fps; integrated with control link |
| HDZero | 5645 – 5945 | OFDM | 20 | Open digital FPV; low latency |
| Walksnail Avatar | 5725 – 5850 | OFDM | 20 / 40 | Competitive with DJI HD; open ecosystem |
| MAVLink combined link | 433 / 868 / 915 / 2400 | FSK / LoRa | 0.125 – 0.5 | Low-bandwidth video + telemetry on same link |
GNSS Navigation
All positioning, altitude hold, Return-to-Home and waypoint navigation depends on GNSS signal quality. Antenna efficiency in the 1.1–1.6 GHz range is critical for reliable flight.
| Name | Standard | Frequency MHz | Modulation | Bandwidth MHz |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| GPS | NMEA / RTCM | L1 1575.42 L2 1227.60 |
BPSK | ~2 |
| GLONASS | GLONASS | L1 1598–1606 L2 1242–1249 |
FDMA / BPSK | ~10 |
| Galileo | Galileo | E1 1575.42 E5a 1176.45 |
BOC | ~4 to ~20 |
| BeiDou | BeiDou-3 | B1 1561 B2 1207 |
BPSK / BOC | ~4 to ~10 |
| RTK (precision) | RTCM 3.x | L1/L2/E5 (as above) | BPSK / BOC | ~2 to ~20 |
Telemetry
Telemetry links carry flight data (altitude, battery, attitude, GPS position) from drone to ground station. Typically bidirectional at lower data rates than the video link.
| Protocol / System | Frequency MHz | Modulation | Data Rate kbps | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| SiK Radio (MAVLink) | 433 / 868 / 915 | GFSK / FHSS | 56 – 250 | Standard for ArduPilot, PX4; open hardware |
| RFD900 series | 902 – 928 | FHSS | Up to 500 | Long-range; used in professional fixed-wing UAVs |
| DJI built-in telemetry | 2400 – 2483 5725 – 5850 |
OFDM | Integrated | Combined with OcuSync / O3 / O4 control link |
| LoRa telemetry | 433 / 868 / 915 | LoRa / CSS | 0.3 – 50 | Long-range; used in swarm and BVLOS operations |
Remote ID (Drone ID)
Remote ID is mandatory in the EU (EASA U-Space) and the US (FAA Part 89). The drone continuously broadcasts its identity, position, altitude and operator location. Two RF technologies are specified.
| Technology | Standard | Frequency MHz | Modulation | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bluetooth 5 (BLE) | ASTM F3411 / EN 4709-002 | 2400 – 2483 | GFSK | BLE extended advertising; ~300 m range; most common implementation |
| Wi-Fi NaN | ASTM F3411 / 802.11 | 2400 – 2483 5150 – 5850 |
OFDM | Wi-Fi Neighbour Awareness Networking; ~1 km range |
Jamming & Counter-UAS (C-UAS) Frequencies
Counter-drone systems must cover all operational frequency bands. The table below shows which frequencies are targeted by jamming equipment and the expected drone response. GNSS spoofing is a more sophisticated alternative to broadband noise jamming.
| Target Link | Jamming Frequency | Technique | Expected Drone Response |
|---|---|---|---|
| RC control (sub-GHz) | 433 / 868 / 915 MHz | Broadband noise / spot jamming | Fail-safe: RTH or motor stop |
| RC control (2.4 GHz) | 2400 – 2483 MHz | Broadband noise; protocol-specific | Fail-safe: RTH, hover, or land |
| FPV video / DJI link (5.8 GHz) | 5725 – 5850 MHz | Broadband noise; OFDM disruption | Video loss; may trigger fail-safe |
| GNSS — GPS L1 | 1575 MHz | Narrowband noise around L1 | Position loss; ATTI mode or land |
| GNSS — multi-constellation | 1176 – 1606 MHz | Wideband noise covering all GNSS bands | Full GNSS denial; forced landing |
| GNSS spoofing | 1575.42 MHz (GPS L1) | Replayed / synthesised GPS signal | Drone steered to attacker-chosen location |
| Cellular uplink (BVLOS) | 700 – 2600 MHz (LTE bands) | LTE downlink jamming | Loss of BVLOS command link |
| Full-spectrum C-UAS | 433 + 915 + 1575 + 2400 + 5800 MHz | Multi-band simultaneous | Complete RF denial; forced descent |
Measuring Drone Antennas with MegiQ Equipment
Drone manufacturers and C-UAS developers need to verify antenna radiation patterns across all bands simultaneously present on the airframe: 433/915 MHz telemetry and control, 1.1–1.6 GHz GNSS, 2.4 GHz control and Remote ID, and 5.8 GHz video. The MegiQ RMS Radiated Measurement System and VNA product lines cover 400 MHz to 6 GHz and are hardware-independent, making them well suited for antenna validation across the full drone RF stack in a compact bench-top setup.